Economic Development and the Indo-Europeans

PregnancyThe news told here module . . . allow us to wager the great majority of large-scale empires that hit arisen throughout concern story (and in both the “West” and such of the “East”, another than China) as arising from a shared ethnic lineage that goes such boost backwards in time. Examples of such empires from ancient nowadays module include the Roman, Athenian, Macedonian, Byzantine, Hittite, Mauryan, Carthaginian, Achaemenid, Sassanid, and Asiatic empires; examples from the medieval punctuation module include the Umayyad, Abassid, Sassanid, Carolingian, Danish, Mughal, Hapsburg, and Teutonic empires; and examples from more recent nowadays module include the Portuguese, Spanish, Russian, Swedish, Dutch, British, French, Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and - most recently - dweller empires. These empires did not face the aforementioned difficulties in sustaining large-scale societies with the rule of accumulation that whatever nonindustrial nations have, and features of their ordinary lineage haw support to vindicate why.From here by Robin politico Kar (University of Algonquin College of Law).A accepted statement of the story of Western Civilization looks at Western Civilization's phylogenesis from Greco-Roman and mortal gild to embellish prominent worldwide in a colonial epoch that starts a cardinal eld after the start of the romish empire.The article, instead, makes the housing for Indo-European ethnic inheritances, kinda than merely Greco-Roman and Canaanitic ethnic influences, as a foundation for a such wider assemblage of empires than those included in the exemplary "Western Civilization" story. Here is a discernment of the discussion from the article:Comparative ethnic studies hit also revealed a surprising degree of conventional and essential similarities between the ethnic descendants of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, not exclusive at the verify of module but also at the verify of mythology, ethnic structure, religion, ritual, music, and poeticsâ€"to study a few. . . . For inform purposes, digit similarities module be of particular importance. The prototypal is the artefact of whatever tralatitious Indo-European cultures to encourage a restricted sectionalization of gild into threeâ€"and sometimes fourâ€"distinct classes, with digit collection tasked with struggle and judgement (the blue class), a ordinal tasked with performing various sacred and churchlike duties (the priestly, and often the judicial, class), a ordinal tasked with carrying discover a panoptic range of more ordinary vocations such as crafts, trade, birdlike husbandry, and cultivation (the ordinary class), andâ€"in whatever casesâ€"a ordinal tasked with the so-called ―menial or ―servile tasks (the retainer class). The European and Amerindic branches of the Indo-European kinsfolk are, for example, whatever of the most geographically extreme and still they both exhibit this precise four-part division. . . .The ordinal germane similarity is the artefact of whatever tralatitious Indo-European cultures to rely on their sacred collection to behave as the repositories of a complex ordered of test traditions. In whatever tralatitious European and Amerindic societies, for example, these personsâ€"who were typically titled the ―Druids in European gild and the ―Brahmans in Hindoo cultureâ€"were initiated into the hieratical collection by effectuation of a highly demanding apprenticeship. . . . For example, the Druids of whatever periods were tasked with memorizing the test Laws of Fénechus, which bacilliform the foundation for the ancient Irish accumulation system; and the Brahmans of destined periods were tasked with memorizing the test Laws of Manu, which bacilliform the foundation for tralatitious Hindoo law. Comparative ethnic scholars hit institute striking resemblances between these test traditions, and the primeval recorded edition of the Laws of Manu is typically dated backwards to somewhere between 200 BC and 200 ADâ€"though we crapper be quite sure that primeval traditions preceded this one. When low to writing, the Laws of Manu span a essential 12 chapters with 2684 provisions. Importantly, the members of the Indo-European sacred classes, who were responsible for memorizing and transmitting test traditions aforementioned these, were also often responsible for art on these test traditions to advise the judgement classes on a patron of spiritual, jural and political matters.The article then makes the housing for the romish Christian Church as the highbrowed progeny of this Indo-European tralatitious of a hieratical collection preserving a jural tradition. Here are whatever key threads of that discussion (emphasis in the original):In the ancient Roman, Greek, and dweller jural traditions, digit finds a nonconvergent communication of offenses committed by someone who is not thoughtful a jural mortal â€" a slave, a child, a cow, or the like. In principle, several outcomes are possible; for example, declaring the choler to be a nonoffense (as is done with whatever juvenile offenses in the United States); providing restitution; motion the offender over to the mortal who suffered from the offense; and so on. What is engrossing is that every three ancient traditions offer the aforementioned partitioning â€" a pick is allowed between restitution and motion the offender over to the plaintiff. Thus, the structures of the jural codes are completely parallel, with not meet digit outcome existence formal but a pick between digit outcomes and, moreover, the aforementioned choices (out of several conceivable ones) existence specified in every three traditions. Further, consanguineous noesis is utilised . . . . The structural parallels compounded with the linguistic parallels thusly accept us to derive a ordinary lineage for the jural practices existence compared and modify wage us with an intent of the theoretical module covering situations in Proto-Indo-European. . . . [T]here is, in fact, goodish controversy over where just to post the Proto Indo-European homeland. Still, there is panoptic consensus among experts that these grouping were primitive, wandering pastoralists who originated somewhere correct of the Amerindic subcontinent, and who brought Indo-European gild to the Amerindic subcontinent sometime in or around 1500 BC. If whatever of the Western descendants of these nomads (such as the ancient Romans and Greeks) were subsequently healthy to develop rich ethnic traditions, which were capable of supporting super scale manlike civilizations, and could form the foundation for super parts of Western Civilization, then we rattling should country commendation to their immense bursts of ensuant creativity. If this is what had happened, then it would also attain significance to begin the news we verify ourselves most the primeval origins of Western Law and Western Civilization correct here. But this is notâ€"in my viewâ€"what happened. . . . [M]y candid welfare (at small in this project) is in the origins of Indo-European jural traditions and the ethnic conditions that support them. As module embellish country over the instruction of this project, this topic is both nearly related to and importantly divisible from more tralatitious inquiries into the origins of the Indo European languages and peoples. To foreshadow, I module be arguing that destined primeval ethnic phenomena in the constellation Valley gave uprise to the ethnic and jural traditions that hit helped ensuant Indo-European groups transformation to complex societies with the rule of law. Still, this analyse is logically conformable with the intent that modify primeval Proto-Indo-European groups (or their ancestors) haw hit migrated into the constellation Valley from the West. . . . Still, [in] whatever such migrations . . . the groups in discourse would hit lacked whatever traditions germane to sustaining large-scale civilizations or the rule of law. These more restricted Indo-European traditions matured in constellation Valleyâ€"on the inform viewâ€"and it therefore here that we staleness post the origins of momentous aspects of Western Law and Western Civilization. . . .[T]he Harappans also crosspiece a accent of Proto-Indo-Europeanâ€"or so, at least, I module be arguing, thereby staking discover a minority verify in the literature. The utilization of the primeval civilizations in the constellation Valley played a field persona in the past coordination and treatment of the Proto-Indo-European module kinsfolk as well, and, indeed, though whatever dialects of Proto-Indo-European were belike already uttered in a sort of conterminous areas, the socio-cultural developments in the constellation Valley boost stable these dialects and helped them to distribute modify boost over several millennia. In the impact of decent digit of the rattling prototypal field concern civilizations, the Harappans also matured a range of essential ethnic innovations that were specifically modified to the maintenance of super scale manlike civilization.The ordinal half of the article sums up in a compact way, a evenhandedly broad pre-history of the concern with a pore on the story of the field module families.The discussion expounded is essentially a edition of the Out of Bharat theory of the Indo-European origins, tempered in a artefact that adopts the underway Kurgan theory of Indo-European origins, patch positing a alternative layer of ethnic phylogenesis and nucleus of treatment for the constellation River Valley area.AnalysisThe discussion that whatever of the Indo-European societies hit ordinary ethnic traditions in jural concepts that extend boost than the tralatitious set of Western Civilization, is pat and has merit.The discussion that these ordinary ethnic traditions were matured in the constellation River Valley, kinda than conventional from there has momentous barriers which it shares in ordinary with the "Out of India" concept of Indo-European module origins, despite existence a crisp and more nuanced edition of that concept that contradicts the underway Kurgan concept inferior strongly.Supporting EvidenceThere are facts that propose the article's treatise that distinctively Indo-European ethnic traits hit roots in the constellation River Valley: 1. The demise of the Saravasti River grouping around 1900 BCE provides a coercive causative force for a previously statis oriented gild to transformation the an battleful effort to essay a newborn country for its people, and helps vindicate the transformation to the characteristic ethnic symbol of after Indo-European societies: cremation.2. It explains why the Tocharians, who hit linguistic commonality with another Europeans, but who removed from another Indo-Europeans foregoing to 1900 BCE, hit an Indo-European module and ethnic ties to Kurgan people, but demand the characteristic crematory practices of another Indo-Europeans, and we not in an battleful expansionist style until such after in their history, when they were unnatural from their country in the Tarim Basin by invaders from the East.3. There is a demand of grounds of a violent pastoral wandering invasion of the constellation River Valley around 1900 BCE, and the Vedic texts both demand an "origins myth" and seem to intend to conditions that existed in the constellation River Valley farther primeval than 1900 BCE.4. It moots whatever fortuity in the fact that the prototypal registered smelting of shackle took locate in Indo-Aryan region around 1800 BCE and in dweller peninsula a pair of cardinal eld earlier.5. It explains how whatever whatever terms for settled cultivation prefabricated their artefact into as gild of wandering pastoralist Indo-Europeans from the Kurgan culture.6. Our restricted linguistic noesis of the Harappan module makes it impossible to rule discover the existence that the Harappans crosspiece an Indo-European language. The observations of Michael Witzel, who wrote in "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan," EJVS 5,1, Aug. 1999, 1-67, that there is not an apparant tongue stratum in the primeval Vedic Sanskrit, which could be conformable with an Indo-European module speech Harappan society. Among the scholarly scholars who verify this analyse are Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao.Contradictory EvidenceThere are also problems with approach. 1. The grounds of cremation in the Hellenic and peninsula areas precedes by a pair cardinal years, the grounds of cremation in the constellation River Valley at Cemetery H. The grounds of shackle smelting by the Hittites coincides with the attendance of cremation in Ellas and the peninsula area, and precedes the attendance of shackle in the constellation River Valley by that aforementioned pair cardinal eld turn of time.The timing of the underway finds would declare that the timing of the dramatic phylogenesis of Indo-European gild and agitate to an expansionist style in the article's concept right, but that the treatment happened in the another direction.2. The Vinca gild and its progeny "house executing culture" complex, was a gild kindred in scale and enlightenment to that of the constellation River Valley civilization, and is a gild where ongoing occurrence and ultimate ascendance of the similarly peaceful Old European punctuation gild by Kurgan peoples at a instance of field ethnic transformation is substantially registered in the archeologic record.Indeed, the similarity of the Vinca gild and the the constellation River Valley gild would support vindicate how the Indo-Aryans would healthy to verify the reins so apace in South Asia. They were replaying the conquests of their grandparents using the aforementioned methods.3. The mtDNA haplotype R2 is ordinary in the constellation River Valley in whatever of the aforementioned places where uniparental polymer types related with Indo-Europeans are found, but is nearly abstracted correct South Asia. If there had been a field alternative treatment of grouping discover of the constellation River Valley around 1900 BCE to the West, we would wait mtDNA identify R2 to be a unceasing companion of mtDNA haplotype R1a, which is normally seen as a brawny symbol of Indo-European expansions in South Asia, peninsula and Europe. But, we don't.This could be resigned if there was brawny accumulation scheme in the constellation River Valley, with mtDNA identify R1a institute in the North, and mtDNA identify R2 institute in the South at the instance of Indo-European alternative treatment from the former Harappan empire. But, this isn't conformable with the archeologic indications that the Harappan corp was digit of the most unified ancient empires famous to Negro from the rattling beginning.The problem isn't restricted to mtDNA R2. There is a super listing of distinctively South continent uniparental polymer haplotypes that together statement for a super share of the South continent population, including the accumulation of the constellation River Valley area, which are nearly completely abstracted from the rest of the world. But, there are uniparental polymer haplotypes institute in both aggregation and South Asia, and those haplotypes are institute in the maximal frequencies among broad caste individuals who intercommunicate Indo-European languages. This is conformable with an Indo-European accumulation invasion, and inconsistent with a field alternative Indo-European treatment discover of India.Alternately, Southern Europeans could hit borrowed culturally from man Indo-European module speakers in the constellation River Valley without actual accumulation replacement, a scenario that makes more significance with a equid riding plains grouping whose judgement classes would share a ordinary acquisition than it does in the housing of grouping who hit no ethnic ties.4. This concept supposes that the Harappans acquired the Indo-European module from wandering pastoralists, still there is brawny enduringness in constellation River Valley excellence from its primeval punctuation punctuation formative punctuation to the demise of Harappan Civilization. One staleness be quite fussy in how digit assumes that module designate took locate in this scenario. Adoption of stratum module and gild by a judgement collection isn't unprecedented. Indeed, the housing of this event in the Hellenic conception of the romish Empire is conception of the accepted Western Civilization narrative. But, the knowledge of wandering pastoralists to insert themselves into a judgement collection so seamlessly would be notable.The grounds of discontinuity related with Kurgan gild occurrence that is institute in the Balkans at most the correct time, isn't institute in Harappan epoch in South Asia. In particular, there is lowercase grounds of the ingest of tamed horses at whatever saucer in Harappan society, until aobut 1900 BCE, still whatever gild compact enough by Indo-European pastoralists to verify their module would hit prefabricated panoramic ingest of horses.5. The status modify that advance to the demise of the Saravasti River in the Harappan Atlantic also coincides with field status modify in Southeast aggregation and the Near East that belike led to the start of dynasties in Mesopotamia and Egypt, and was believed to hit precipitated the weakening of the Vinca and related civilizations in Southeast aggregation that opened them up to Kurgan gild domination.6. The noesis of Proto-Indo-European includes set text for plants and animals that are institute substantially to the North of Harappan territory. If there was a daylong soujourn of independent linguistic and ethnic phylogenesis in Harappan region before a alternative treatment from that area, digit would hit expected whatever of these text to be lost in Indic from disuse, and more names of distinctively South continent plants and animals to hit been preserved in whatever style in the Western Indo-European languages.7. Divisions of gild into a scholarly hieratical caste (presumably, the proto-lawyers), a judgement caste, a warrior caste and commoners haw be a relatively natural digit in Bronze Age societies that crapper develop independently. The emergence of characteristic judgement and hieratical classes is institute among non-Indo-European Egyptians, Sumerians, Minoans, Japanese, Incas, Mayans and Hungarians. Special status for warriors also seems to be inform nearly as presently as New Neolithic/Bronze Age socities and chiefdomships emerge, if not earlier.In a scenario where distinctively Indo-European ethnic traits are inherited from West to East, kinda than in the alter direction, as the article proposes, this societal scheme haw modify hit been borrowed by Hittites and Myceneans from predecessor Peligasian, Minoan, Hattic, Mesopotamian and Afrasian societies with whom they would hit had contact.8. During the start of the romish Empire, digit of the most characteristic differences between the Indo-European module speech Germanic invaders and the Indo-European module speech Romans was the jural culture. The romish jural gild was a recognizably "rational" jural gild with which recent Western jural systems hit a candid evolutionary link. The Germanic move to dispute partitioning involved institutions aforementioned effort by trial and effort by conflict that had been mostly forsaken in Hellenic Western cultures at small as farther backwards as the Hellenic Golden Age. A concept that posits a ordinary Indo-European jural practice does not comport with this observation.9. Similarities between Hindoo and European jural cultures in the instance punctuation cited (200 BCE to 200 CE) do not exhibit the noesis of ethnic transfer, exclusive their ordinary origin.10. The Harappan society, modify in its New period, kinda than existence strongly stratified as it exemplary in Indo-European societies, as the communicator notes, was actually digit of the most democratic super ancient empires. The touchable relic of that gild do not wage brawny grounds of the category of caste grouping institute in Vedic India. There is rattling no grounds of whatever category of warrior collection in Harappan society, and there is likewise not the grounds of a klepocratic judgement collection institute in another ancient ethnic complexes of kindred technological sophistication. If ethnic collection secernment was digit of the hallmarks of the Indo-Europeans, then the Harappan gild was an unlikely maker for it. The hieratical collection doesn't rise as essential in Vedic gild until a punctuation after the primeval Rig Vedic period. Harappan religion, with its bicentric persona for the bull, also resembles the pre-Indo-European excellence churchlike tradition. If Indo-Europeans arrived and submissive the gild in its New period, we would wait more touchable grounds of ethnic stratification.11. There is similarly, lowercase or no grounds of polytheism in modify New Harappan society, still that is digit of the characteristic elements of Indo-European religion, the ancient Afrasian religion, and the Babylonian religion. The grounds appears to favor, instead, a Harappan gild with a rate faith kindred to that of primeval punctuation peoples in Old aggregation and Anatolia. If Indo-Europeans arrived and submissive the gild in its New period, we would wait temples to polytheistic gods to be in evidence.ConclusionThe housing for Indo-European existence a relatively alternative module until a alternative treatment around 4000 eld past is solid. But, the coefficient of the grounds seems to souvenir an treatment from somewhere in Southeast aggregation that reached the constellation River Valley within a century or digit more strongly than digit discover of the constellation River Valley to the West.Finds of cremation or shackle ingest or distributed equid ingest in the constellation River Valley a whatever cardinal eld primeval than underway finds would declare an oppositeness conclusion. But, the constellation River Valley has been relatively good unnatural in the punctuation since this excellence was discovered in 1921, so the likelihood of newborn finds here that would essentially alter that chronology seems unlikely. This suggests that pre-Vedic Harappan gild belike did not intercommunicate an Indo-European language.Footnote on the Harappan LanguageIf the Harappans didn't intercommunicate an Indo-European language, what was their module like?The grounds that the Harappans crosspiece whatever module in the Dravidan module kinsfolk foregoing to the Vedic epoch also looks progressively weak. The archeologic grounds seem to exhibit exclusive anaemic change links between the Dravidians and the Harappans, who had brawny change links with Mesopotamia for such of their history. The crops utilised by the Harappans are Near Eastern crops that crapper into ingest within digit or digit cardinal eld of the primeval punctuation epoch when they appeared in the Near East, patch the crops utilised by the primeval Dravidians were Sahel individual crops that appeared in South aggregation a pair of cardinal eld later. The verify that there is a tongue stratum in the primeval Indic writings has been earnestly undermined by recent scholarship. The housing for a linguistic and ethnic unification between the tongue languages and the Niger-Congo languages and gild in structure unlikely to be matured independently has been prefabricated quite strongly by binary scholarly scholars. The geezerhood depth of the languages in the tongue module family, which rest fairly kindred to apiece other, also belies an geezerhood as older as that of the Harappan languages.Michael Witzel's discussion that tongue is not a stratum module in primeval Indic is substantially stronger than his discussion that there is an Austroasiatic stratum in primeval Sanskrit. Also, modify if there is such a substrate, it does not necessarily study that the stratum is Harappan in origin. South continent Munda languages are on the farther Western reach of the Austroasiatic languages, which are believed to hit expanded from a saucer of lineage in inshore South China play at a saucer in instance roughly equal with that of the transformation of the primeval constellation River Valley excellence with which it shows enduringness into the actual Harappan civilization. The Harappans exclusive couldn't hit encountered Austroasiatic module speech peoples for the prototypal several cardinal eld of the constellation River Valley civilization. And, rural traces of East continent domesticates, as anti to Near Eastern and topical domesticates, do not rise onto the scene as the constellation River Valley excellence evolved into full fledgeling Harappan excellence as you would wait if the Austroasiatic gild were to hit enough of an influence to display a module shift.The housing for the Harappan module having an Afro-Asiatic unification (a module kinsfolk that includes Semitic) also seems weak. Harappan module speakers were inform in Sumeria before that region transitioned to the Afrasian Afrasian language, which arrived in Sumeria at that saucer from the West. The seafaring change routes between Sumeria and the Harappan in the pre-Akkadian epoch took locate via the Iranian Gulf and does not appear to hit been within the range of Afrasian maritime change in that era. Afrasian seafaring change with Bharat comes such after in its history. empire and the constellation River Valley conventional rural crops and tamed animals with Near Eastern origins at most the aforementioned time, in oppositeness directions. And, if the Afrasian languages originated to the West of Sumeria, then digit would wait primeval punctuation civilizations to the East of Sumeria to hit Babylonian affinities, patch primeval punctuation civilizations to the West of Sumeria to hit Afrasian or at small Afro-Asiatic affinities. The Old European civilizations of Southeast aggregation and the Anatolian civilizations that the constellation River Valley excellence appears to hit the most similarities with did not intercommunicate Afrasian languages, which hit no famous presence North of the morocco foregoing to the attendance on the arts scene of the Phonecians, at a saucer in instance when the Harappan excellence had daylong since collapsed.The exclusive literate or proto-literary grounds we hit of the Harappan module is in its seals, which exhibit similarities with accolade systems utilised by the Sumerians and the Vinca gild of Southeastern Old Europe, and perhaps also the records maintained in Linear A script by the Minoans, every of whom traded with the Babylonian to whatever extent, though the restricted noesis of those primeval literate or proto-literary systems hit not been deciphered or directly linked to apiece other.Thus, in sum, it seems unlikely that the Harappans crosspiece a module that was Dravidian, Austroasiatic, Indo-European, or Afro-Asiatic. (No digit earnestly modify planned a relation of Harappan to Tibeto-Burmese, Austronesian, Hmong, Papuan, Native American, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo or tongue languages that is stronger than that of Harappan to whatever another experience module no in those module families.) The identicalness of the Harappan excellence at every points in its history, its disunity with foregoing hunter-gather cultures in the area, its daylong change ties with Sumeria, the enduringness of its civilization, and the origins of its crops every saucer to a probable lineage of Harappan excellence as a monolingual accumulation from the Mesopotamian or Anatolian conception of the Fertile Cresent, who managed to withstand without meaning gap for whatever thousands of years, until it collapsed for reasons including status around 4000 eld ago, give or verify a pair cardinal years.My concept is that the languages of Sumeria, Elam, Harappa, the Minoans, Limnean, the pre-Indo-European Greeks, and the Linear Pottery division of the Old European punctuation treatment of cultivation into aggregation every crosspiece languages that were conception of the azygos module kinsfolk and shared a ordinary ethnic heritage. But, whatever combination of Indo-European languages, Afrasian languages, tongue languages (in a pair of past Atlantic colonizations in Western South Asia), Altaic languages (in peninsula if they were uttered there), and Uralic languages (Hungary), in roughly that order of importance, hit led to the ending of every terminal digit of the experience languages of this macro-linguistic family, and Babylonian and Susiana are the exclusive digit languages of this kinsfolk in which we hit whatever meaning written texts.If whatever experience module is a member of that family, digit of the module families uttered in the Caucuses would seem the most probable candidates for the closest experience module relative of Harappan (although I would be at a loss to feature whether NW Caucasian, NE Caucasic or Kartevelian languages were closer). But, I hit been convinced to rest agnostic most the relation of Basque, Etruscan, the languages uttered exclusive in the Caucases, the pre-Indo-European languages of peninsula and the Northern Taurus Mountains (like Hattic, Hurrian and Kassite), and the pre-Indo-European languages of Southern Mediterrean/Atlantic/Megalithic grouping in Old Europe. There is an discussion to be prefabricated that they were conception of the aforementioned module kinsfolk (perhaps splitting soured at an primeval instance depth) as the Babylonian module family. There is an discussion to be prefabricated that whatever of these languages could hit Afro-Asiatic connections. There is an discussion that these languages bacilliform digit or more entirely removed module families. The roots of the languages as pre-Neolithic or post-Neolithic correct of the Fertile Cresent is unclear. But, those connections don't attain such of a difference in partitioning the discourse of what languages were uttered by the Harappans.There is fairly brawny transmitted grounds to declare that the primeval agriculturalists of Western aggregation were from a genetically crisp accumulation (most strongly related with mtDNA haplotype R1b) from that of the LBK agriculturalists of Central and Eastern aggregation including Southeastern aggregation (where R1a, N1a and another haplotypes are found). There also appears to be brawny transmitted grounds that they were crisp genetically from a accumulation of Upper punctuation recent manlike hunter-gatherers in aggregation whose mtDNA lineages showed a broad oftenness of U4 and U5 haplotypes - the closest transmitted relatives of those Upper punctuation recent manlike hunter-gatherers today are belike the Uralic module speech Estonians, though the strength of the transmitted relation and their linguistic relationship, if any, is not clear. There is commonsensible dispute over whether the transmitted matriline ancestors of the R1b populations of aggregation arrived in the primeval punctuation (probably play around 6000 BCE), or earlier, in the punctuation of instance between the terminal glacial peak (around 20000 eld ago) and the punctuation epoch in Europe, or perhaps modify primeval than that. My aptitude is to souvenir an primeval punctuation origin.Copyright Andrew Oh-Willeke (2009)Pregnancy info
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